The Early Dynastic Period (3100–2686 B.C.E)

Narmer (also sometimes known as Menes, but this was a title applied to
several archaic kings), the fi rst pharaoh to rule a united kingdom of the
Upper Nile and Delta, is said to have ruled for 67 years. He is memorialized
by a stone tablet called the Narmer Palette, which was excavated in
the temple at Hierakonpolis, that depicts him wearing a conical crown
that may stand for Upper Egypt and grasping a kneeling man (possibly
representing Lower Egypt) by the hair. The palette’s exact date is disputed
by scholars, but is estimated to be about 3000 B.C.E. It is conceivable that
the Upper and Lower Kingdoms had already united and broken up and
that Narmer reunited them. Whatever might have happened, every one of
Narmer’s successors is represented as wearing the crowns of both Upper
and Lower Egypt, and the pattern of dynastic rule was established.
Narmer is responsible for founding the fi rst capital of ancient Egypt,
Men Nefer, which the Greeks called Memphis, located some 12 miles
(19 kilometers) south of Cairo on the west bank of the Nile. It remained
the principal city of Egypt’s rulers until it was eclipsed by Thebes around
1300 B.C.E. South of Memphis is the vast cemetery of Saqqara, which
includes the earliest mastabas (free-standing tombs). In use for royalty
and nobility, some of them were decorated with reliefs depicting the

lives the deceased hoped to fi nd in the next world. Ancient Egyptians
believed that, if a dead body decomposed, its owner would not be able
to enjoy the afterlife. The priests of the early dynasties discovered how
to preserve the bodies of their deceased kings, commonly called “mummies,”
so that they might enjoy the afterlife. Since Egypt’s climate is
hot and dry, some bodies might have been preserved naturally, but the
processes of mummifi cation ensured their continued existence. These
essential features of the Archaic Period would set a pattern for the culture
of all subsequent Egyptian dynasties.
Key Features of Dynastic Egypt
By the time of the Third Dynasty and the beginning of the Old Kingdom,
Egypt had become a centralized theocracy with a complex religious and
political system, whose basic features are outlined below.
The Religious and Political System
The religious system developed by the Egyptians included a multitude
of gods who controlled every aspect of this life and a detailed vision of
the afterlife. Tied in with the religious beliefs was the ruling system,
which included the idea of divine kingship. This concept turned an
otherwise human pharaoh into a god on earth, a living connection
between what was mortal and what was eternal. The pharaoh alone
could worship the gods and maintain cosmic harmony. His crown,
scepter, other visible symbols of his authority, and titles connected him
to various gods, especially to Horus. His death and ritual rebirth served
to reconfi rm him.
Divine kingship was one solution to a problem faced by every
society: how to ensure that people will work together to survive and
prosper, and to defend themselves if need be. The ancient tribes in the
area had been hunter-gatherers as long as their climate could support
woods and plains. As the region dried up, people settled in oases or
on the banks of rivers, where they adapted to farming and trade. In
hard times one tribe might prey on its neighbors to take its food or
other goods. The leaders of the strongest tribes evolved into warlords.
Usually they were male and aggressive, gaining control by fi ghting
their challengers. They stayed in power by attracting other men to
their side and granting them special privileges. Over time each leader
extended control over a wider area, but the need to support retainers
was costly. Claiming divinity was a way of ensuring obedience without

needing to pay so much or take so many men away from their fi elds,
fl ocks, and families.
In Egypt the institution of divine kingship was reinforced by the Nile
fl ood. Managing its waters required the organized labor of most ablebodied
adults. A fl ood that inundated and fertilized fi elds that would
later be sown with grain was a blessing. A high one that swept away
houses, animals, and children was not. Needless to say, a low Nile that
left much of the ground hard and parched was just as bad. A powerful
king who commanded a corps of offi cials and engineers could usually
make the fl ood benefi t the people. It was natural for Egyptians to
believe that the king could control how much the Nile fl ooded each
year. Together, they called upon the gods who controlled the forces of
nature to bring a benefi cent fl ood and a bountiful harvest. By the same
logic, the people thanked the gods for a good harvest, hoping that the
next annual fl ood would serve them as well.
Life and Death
The ancient Egyptians built temples and pyramids and sought to prolong
the existence of their deceased rulers by embalming, wrapping, and
thus preserving their bodies. The pyramids—or, later, the tombs—that
they erected were intended to guard the bodies of their kings, along with
their possessions, forever. People often assert that the ancient Egyptians
were preoccupied with death. In reality, they were obsessed with life. The
ancient Egyptians, protected by seas and deserts, did not fear invasion
by alien armies, navies, or nomadic tribes. Their religion celebrated the
good life and sought to prolong it for the king and his nobles, assuming
that life after death would resemble the life they already knew. A divine
king, well cared for during and after his life, would ensure his subjects’
prosperity, for he was the emissary of the gods.
Rulers and Their Duties
The King
The king was charged with maintaining the balance of maat, the rule of
order that protected the world from the constant threat of chaos. It is
hard to translate or to defi ne maat, the principle of truth, order, balance,
and justice. Ancient Egyptians believed that unless the king and his people
preserved maat, forces outside creation would move in and destroy it.
The many gods of ancient Egypt were aspects of the Creator. All people
and all gods belonged to the created world, which encompassed all

levels of existence. Egyptians saw every act in life as part of a divine
will, mediated for them by the king.
In practical terms the king was expected to protect his people from
outside enemies and natural misfortunes, maintain justice, and above
all perform the religious rituals that would ensure the people’s continued
prosperity.
The rulers of ancient Egypt are customarily known as pharaohs. The
ancients did not use the term in the Old and Middle Kingdoms; only
around 1500 B.C.E. did the term pharaoh, originally applied to the palace
in which the king lived, come to be used as a royal title

aided by a vizier, or chief minister, or often by one vizier
for Upper Egypt and one for the Nile Delta. They headed a large and
increasingly elaborate class of scribes who collected dues and taxes,
supervised the construction of temples and other public works, and
kept government records. A separate hierarchy of priests helped the
rulers to carry out the religious rituals, especially those concerned with
ensuring their immortality. A class of judges settled disputes, especially
over land ownership, although some priests also served as judges. In
addition, there were local administrators for the 42 nomes (provinces

of ancient Egypt. Egypt during the Middle and New Kingdoms also
had a large army that conquered some of the lands of the Upper Nile,
mainly Nubia, and also ancient Syria and Palestine